AP 政治课笔记
高中大学选修政治课课堂笔记，仅作个人用途。
目录
意识形态
社会政策
| 单词 | 释义 |
|---|---|
| Government Intervention | - regulatory actions taken in order to affect decisions made by individuals, groups, or organizations regarding social and economic matters |
| Individual Liberties | - personal freedoms that the government cannot abridge, particularly those guarantees found in the Bill of Rights |
| Right To Privacy | - the right to be free of government scrutiny into one's private beliefs and behavior |
| Social Policy | - public policy related to health care, human services, criminal justice, inequality, education, and labor |
| Social | Economic | |
|---|---|---|
| More Control | 1. Affirmative action is a good thing 2. Marriage should be between a man and a woman 3. We need tougher penalties and policing to deal with crime |
1. Everyone has a right to quality healthcare 2. Rent control is a good thing 3. Social safety nets are crucial 4. Every worker has the right to a living wage |
| Less Control | 1. Marijuana should be legalized 2. Laws restriction gun rights are unconstitutional and won't have the intended impact 3. Same-sex couples should have full marriage rights |
1. Government intervention in the free market will slow the economy, hurting everyone |
政府应在多大程度上进行干预，以促进社会和经济平等？
政府政策应在多大程度上尊重个人隐私或促进传统道德？
为了保护公共安全而限制个人自由是否是可以允许的？
公民如何回答以上问题，可以显示出他们对政府在塑造社会方面的适当作用的意见的尖锐分歧，这被称为社会政策（social policy）。
政治党派
美国的两个主要政党 ———— 民主党和共和党 ———— 分别与自由派（liberal）和保守派（conservative）的意识形态紧密对应。这些意识形态影响着美国的政策辩论，而这些辩论往往涉及到政府对经济或社会行为的适当干预。
尽管个人的意识形态与他们的政党选择之间有很强的相关性，但美国人在经济和社会问题上持有一系列观点，并不能只是整齐地归入简单的「左 - 右」。
Liberal Ideologies
- tend to favor more government intervention in order to promote social and economic equality
- 更多支持废除死刑；认为死刑代表了残酷的惩罚，因此比起死刑更多会支持预防犯罪的政策
- 认为强大的联邦政府更能保证社会内的平等
- 支持保底周薪（wages）
- 认为如果没有政府干涉，商业会压榨员工导致经济不平衡
- 反对政府干涉私人生活，例如限制了同性婚姻的法律或政策
- 支持合法化大麻
- 认为政府应当提供大范围的社会服务以保证社会平等和幸福
Conservative Ideologies
- tend to oppose government intervention in order to promote social and economic equality
- 支持死刑
- 认为自由市场会奖励有天赋且努力工作的人
- 反对政府限制 Bill of Rights，例如用武器保护自己
- 反对堕胎；比起 pro-liberty 更 pro-life
- 强烈支持政府花钱在军事 & 国际安全上
- 多数认为大麻合法化会导致社会不纪律 & 不安全
- 支持禁带有危险主题的书；认为这些书籍不应该免费提供给年轻孩子，并认为孩子父母应该负责孩子阅读的书籍类型
- 认为政府应当是小规模的，主要于州或当地运营
- Social conservatives 认为政府应该支持 traditional morality，例如限制堕胎、同性婚姻
Libertarian Party / Ideologies
- 美国第三大政派
- 反对政府通过任何与经济和社会有关的政策
- 认为政府的存在只应该是为了保护私人财产和其他小事
- 支持合法化赌博
- 反对扩大政府以解决社会和经济问题
- 认为政府不应该有支持或反对宗教的行为
Progressive Ideologies
- 认为政府应当解决过去的错误并改革导致了不利因素的系统问题
- 为了重建社会和系统机制，会支持更强的联邦计划
Communitarians
- 支持将社区需要放在个人需要之上的法律
- 多数在经济上自由，但社会上保守
- 为了保护社区，有些支持死刑
Democratic Party
- 美国最大的政派之一
- the world's oldest active political party
- would be most likely to oppose reduced sentencing for nonviolent felony offenders（非暴力重罪罪犯）
- would be most likely to oppose reduced sentencing for nonviolent felony offenders（非暴力重罪罪犯）
Republican Party
- 美国最大的政派之一
- would most likely to support opening public lands for ranching and oil exploration
- would most likely to support opening public lands for ranching and oil exploration
Green Party
- 美国第四大政派
- 支持更强大的联邦政府
- 其候选人通常支持基层民主（grassroots democracy）、非暴力、社会正义，以及环境主义
Nationalists
- 支持促进国家利益
- 通常认为自己的国家比他国优越
- 因为了最大化国家利益，可能会支持死刑
经济政策
| 单词 | 释义 |
|---|---|
| The Federal Reserve | - also called "The Fed" - an independent federal agency that determines US monetary policy with the goal of stabilizing the banking system and promoting economic growth |
Fiscal Policy
- government decisions about how to influence the economy by taxing and spending
- 由国会控制
- 指政府如何对公民征税和花钱，或政府的资金进出预算
Monetary Policy
- government decisions about how to influence the economy using control of the money supple and interest rates
- 由 the Federal Reserve 决定
- 指政府如何通过调整货币供应量和利率来控制货币价值
Keynesian Economics
- an economic philosophy that encourages government spending（through the creation of jobs or the distribution of unemployment benefits）in order to promote economic growth
- 认为当经济糟糕时，政府应该多干预市场
- 于 1929-1939 的大萧条时期中盛行；以政府支出和管控来促进经济
- 例如政府盖太阳能农场以创造更多的工作
Supply-Side Economics
- an economic philosophy that encourages tax cuts and deregulation in order to promote economic growth
- 认为当经济糟糕时，政府应该少干预市场
- libertarian 相比较于 conservative 会更反对政府干预市场，他们觉得政府就不应该干预市场
- 1970 年时 conservative 开始反对政治支出，认为减税和放松管制才能促进繁荣
- 反对政府消费
- 强调降低税收和以低价格刺激商品和服务的供应来增加就业
- 也称作为 Trickle Down Policy
- 为了经济增长提议减少商业税，因此商业能够用省下来的钱投资以增加更多的工作
政策制定
| 单词 | 释义 | 例子 |
|---|---|---|
| Policy Mood | - measure of the public's preferences toward policy choices - economic and cultural attitudes |
|
| Position Issues | - divide voters, opinions don't overlap - an issue that divides voters |
1. gun control 2. death penalty |
| Valence Issues | - most voters agree with the values if not the approach - an issue most voters will agree with |
1. economic prosperity 2. caring for the elderly |
公共政策反映了当时选择参与政治的公民的态度和信念，因此随着公民态度和信念的变化，政策也在逐年变化。
政党将政策问题的解决方案作为其政纲的一部分，但这些解决方案也会随着公众态度的变化而变化。当政党进行研究和观察民意调查时，他们会调整他们提出的政策解决方案，以最好地反映他们期望的选民的需求。
在所有这些政策议程波动的基础上，公众倾向于对总统的做法失去信心。总统在任时间越长，他们的意识形态立场就会失去支持。两届总统在任的第七年是意识形态支持率最低的时候。
也就是说，总统在职的时间越长，公众就越希望有新的解决方案，从而导致公众偏向相反党派的意识形态。
政府不会一次只针对一项政策，因为这样做的效率并不高。
当针对某项的公众支持率上升时，国会成员便会引入与该项相关的法律。
政治文化与社会化
美国人对政府和政治的态度
大多数意识形态范围内的美国人相信着的核心价值观（core values）：
- 机会平等（equality of opportunity）
- 法治（the rule of law）
- 有限政府（limited government）
- 自力更生/个人主义（self-reliance / individualism）
- 自由企业（free enterprise）
但是对于这些价值观含义的解释可能会有很大的差异，不同的公民对某些价值观的重视程度高于其他价值观。
而这些对价值观的解释和相对重要性的差异形成了公民对政府作用的信念，并在决定人们在重大选举中支持哪一个政党方面发挥了作用。
| 单词 | 释义 |
|---|---|
| American Political Culture | - the value that influence individuals' attitudes and beliefs about the relationship between citizens and the federal government |
| Equality of Opportunity | - the belief that each person should have the same opportunities to advance in society - everyone should have the opportunity to be healthy, regardless of their family income - all should have ability to compete on a level playing field where success is determined by hard work and talent |
| Free Enterprise | - the belief in the right to compete freely in a market government by supply and demand with limited government involvement - the government should not involve itself in citizens' health; that would give it too much power over their private lives - an economic system of which the government does not put their hands on private company |
| Equality of Opportunity | - the belief that each person should have the same opportunities to advance in society - everyone should have the opportunity to be healthy, regardless of their family income - all should have ability to compete on a level playing field where success is determined by hard work and talent |
| Free Enterprise | - the belief in the right to compete freely in a market government by supply and demand with limited government involvement - the government should not involve itself in citizens' health; that would give it too much power over their private lives - an economic system of which the government does not put their hands on private company |
| Ideology | - the beliefs and ideas that help to shape political opinion and policy |
| Individualism | - the principle of valuing individual rights over those of the government, with a strong emphasis on individual initiative and responsibility - values of individual rights / freedom over the government - protecting personal freedoms from government interference - must be balanced with responsibility of government to provide order and stability |
| Limited Government | - a political system in which there are restrictions placed on the government to protect individual rights and liberties - limitations on the power of government |
| Rule of Law | - the principle that government is based on a body of law applied equally and fairly to every citizen, not on the whims of those in charge, and that no one is above the law, including the government - principle by which all people and institutions are equally accountable towards the law |
| Individualism | - the principle of valuing individual rights over those of the government, with a strong emphasis on individual initiative and responsibility - values of individual rights / freedom over the government - protecting personal freedoms from government interference - must be balanced with responsibility of government to provide order and stability |
| Limited Government | - a political system in which there are restrictions placed on the government to protect individual rights and liberties - limitations on the power of government |
| Rule of Law | - the principle that government is based on a body of law applied equally and fairly to every citizen, not on the whims of those in charge, and that no one is above the law, including the government - principle by which all people and institutions are equally accountable towards the law |
价值观含义的解释差异举例：
- A 认为 individualism 指的是政府不应该干涉美国公民的任何经济或社会习惯
- B 认为 individualism 指的是政府不应该干涉由 Bill of Rights 保护的权利；但如果有商业或州侵犯了这些权利，政府应当干涉
政治社会化
| 单词 | 释义 | 例子 |
|---|---|---|
| 单词 | 释义 | 例子 |
| ---- | ---- | ---- |
| Demographic Characteristics | - socioeconomic characteristics of a population that influence how individuals tend to vote and whether they identify with a political party | 1. age, race, gender, religion, marital status, occupation, education level and more |
| Globalization | - the growth of an interconnected world economy and culture, fueled by lowered trade barriers between nations and advances in communications technology - has influenced American politics by increasing the extent to which the United States influences, and is influenced by, the values of other countries |
|
| Party Identification | - an individual's sense of loyalty to a specific political party | |
| Political Socialization | - the process by which a person develops political values and beliefs, including through interactions with family, friends, school, religious and civic groups, and the media - complicated manner in which an individual's sense of politic identity, politic party affiliation, and values related to government are shaped by broader culture |
|
| Polarization | - the divergence of political attitudes away from the centre, towards ideological extremes | |
| Political Efficacy | - the belief that an individual can impact political outcomes |
Influence of factors on political beliefs
因素 解析 家人 - 最能影响到个体政治社会化的因素，包括意识形态和政党偏向
- 孩童会通过讨论和媒体重复性地受父母的观点影响朋友 - 与朋友相处会影响到态度培养
- 没有家人那么有影响力教育等级 - 公立学校的作用便是教授基本政府、民主观点、爱国主义，以及促进参政
- 教育等级越高，越可能参政，投票率也会因政治效能（political efficacy）而变高社会群体 - 成员通常已经有了共同的价值观和人生目标
- 群体中的社会互动对成员的政党归属和对政策问题的看法有影响宗教群体 - 群体中的领导将直接讨论特定的政策问题
- 通过群体在特定政策问题所站的立场来影响个体的政治思想地理 - 来自特定地区的人们倾向于有着共同的观点
- 乡村和城市的住民也可以有相同的利益年龄 - 在人生的不同阶段中个体的政治态度都会发生可预测的变化 媒体 - 让个体对政治方面的背景信息、政府的价值有了更全面的认知
- 可以让个体选择信息来源，例如有着共同价值观的信息来源
| Political Socialization | - the process by which a person develops political values and beliefs, including through interactions with family, friends, school, religious and civic groups, and the media
- complicated manner in which an individual's sense of politic identity, politic party affiliation, and values related to government are shaped by broader culture | |
| Polarization | - the divergence of political attitudes away from the centre, towards ideological extremes | |
| Political Efficacy | - the belief that an individual can impact political outcomes | |
Influence of factors on political beliefs
因素 解析 家人 - 最能影响到个体政治社会化的因素，包括意识形态和政党偏向
- 孩童会通过讨论和媒体重复性地受父母的观点影响朋友 - 与朋友相处会影响到态度培养
- 没有家人那么有影响力教育等级 - 公立学校的作用便是教授基本政府、民主观点、爱国主义，以及促进参政
- 教育等级越高，越可能参政，投票率也会因政治效能（political efficacy）而变高社会群体 - 成员通常已经有了共同的价值观和人生目标
- 群体中的社会互动对成员的政党归属和对政策问题的看法有影响宗教群体 - 群体中的领导将直接讨论特定的政策问题
- 通过群体在特定政策问题所站的立场来影响个体的政治思想地理 - 来自特定地区的人们倾向于有着共同的观点
- 乡村和城市的住民也可以有相同的利益年龄 - 在人生的不同阶段中个体的政治态度都会发生可预测的变化 媒体 - 让个体对政治方面的背景信息、政府的价值有了更全面的认知
- 可以让个体选择信息来源，例如有着共同价值观的信息来源
Influence of demographic factors on party identification
特征 在统计上更有可能被认为为民主党 在统计上更有可能被认为为共和党 性别 - 女 - 男 收入 - 低收入 - 高收入 婚姻状态 - 单身
- 离婚
- 守寡- 已婚 职业状态 - 蓝领 - 白领
- 居家工作的女性种族 - African Americans
- Hispanic Americans- Whites 宗教 - 犹太人
- 无宗教信仰者- 新教徒（基督教徒）
- 天主教徒地区 - Northeasterners
- Westerners- Midwesterners
- Southerners年龄 - 年轻或年老的美国人 - 中年美国人 性别 - 女 - 男 收入 - 低收入 - 高收入 婚姻状态 - 单身
- 离婚
- 守寡- 已婚 职业状态 - 蓝领 - 白领
- 居家工作的女性种族 - African Americans
- Hispanic Americans- Whites 宗教 - 犹太人
- 无宗教信仰者- 新教徒（基督教徒）
- 天主教徒地区 - Northeasterners
- Westerners- Midwesterners
- Southerners年龄 - 年轻或年老的美国人 - 中年美国人 Union Membership - union members - non-union members 父母亲的政治立场 - parents strongly aligned with Democratic Party - parents strongly aligned with Republican Party 父母亲的政治立场 - parents strongly aligned with Democratic Party - parents strongly aligned with Republican Party
Political Socialization
- one example of the process of political socialization in school is students are required to take an American government course to graduate from high school
- media, family, and school are the major agents of political socializations
Liberty V.S. Order
- must be balanced in order for society to function optimally
- policy outcomes reflect preference of voters and policymakers at any given time
- changing power of various groups leads to policy changes
- for example: Alcohol prohibition in 1920 got repealled in 1933
- excessive personal liberty will lead to chaos, while excessive social order will stifle personal liberty and creativity
Culture War
- deep divisions and increase in polarization between Americans who wish to return to an idealized culture based on traditional values and Americans who favor change
- 于保守派和自由派之间的政治极化（political polarization）和冲突便导致了文化战争（culture war）
- 政治组织和其利益群体通过媒体带动了积极性 / 热情（enthusiasm）和政党支持，并驱使了政治极化，让公民们越来越能接受极端立场
意识形态的变化
| 单词 | 释义 | 例子 |
|---|---|---|
| Generational Effects | - experiences shared by a group of people who came of age together that affect their political attitudes | - wars and economic recessions that hit one generation particularly hard have lasting effects on the political attitudes of that generations as its members progress through life |
| Lifecycle Effects | - changes over the course of an individual's lifetime, which affect their political attitudes and participation | - as individuals develop from young people to adults to senior citizens, their concerns and values change |
| Period Effects | - major events and social trends that affect the political attitudes of the entire population | - the terrorist attacks on September 11 and the Watergate scandal had lasting effects on the political attitudes of those who lived through them |
政治事件对意识形态的影响
| 单词 | 释义 |
|---|---|
| Formative Age | - young adulthood, between ages 18 and 24, when many people form long-lasting political attitudes |
| Party Realignment | - a sharp change in the issues or voting blocs that a party represents |
| Period Effects | - major events and social trends that affect the political attitudes of the entire population |
除开导致了政治社会化的因素外，政治事件也能够强烈地影响到个体的意识形态。
部分社会学家认为，绝大多数人的政治观念会在 18 到 24 岁之间建立完成。而在这个年龄段内发生的重要事件都会对人们的三观产生强烈的影响。
例如在大萧条中成年的人（18 到 24 岁）会比其他没有在经济危机中成年的人更显现出在消费观念上的保守。
公众观点
衡量民意
投票（polls）是一个用于衡量民意的常用方法。而民意代表了公众如何看待问题、选举人，以及官员。
Types of Polls
单词 释义 Opinion Poll - determine beliefs citizens have Benchmark Polls - used at beginning of a campaign that can be used later for comparison Tracking Polls - ask individuals the same questions at different time intervals to measure data trends over time Entrance Polls - given to voters before voting Exit Polls - given to voters after voting Push Polls - propaganda technique designed to manipulate voter opinion with bias questions or by spreading false information
Sampling
单词 释义 Sample - a small group to study to make predictions about the larger population
- the group of people a researcher surveys to gauge the whole population's opinion
-Sampling（Margin of）Error - potential discrepancy between poll results and actual opinion
- as the sample size increases, the sampling error decreases
- the predicted difference between the average opinion expressed by survey respondents and the average opinion in the populationMass Survey - typically use 1,000 to 2,000 respondents Random Sample - each member of a population mush have an equal probability of selection Representative Sample - sample must accurately and proportionally mirror the diversity of the population being surveyed
- politic scientist mathematically weight certain demographic characteristics
- a relatively small number of respondents who accurately reflect the variety of opinions, demographics, etc. in the broader populationSampling Technique - the process by which pollsters select respondents to a survey or the sample population for a poll Random Sample - a random selection from a population, random sampling techniques ensures an equal probability of individuals being selected for a survey or poll
Question Design
单词 释义 Forced Choice > Open Ended - produce more accurate results and simplify data calculation and analysis Question Wording - should be concise and neutral in tone to avoid influencing responses
- no emotionally charged language
- Question order can influence result of future poll questions
- Some polls force respondents to answer questions about things they don't know
- "I don't know" options can increase accuracy of results
Focus Groups
- small group of people who participate in a structured discussion led by a moderator to discover insight into public opinion
- can provide qualitative data and insight into voter perception of issues
- do not provide quantitative data about the broader population
Polls and Elections
- polls and focus group data used to form messaging in advertising and preparation for public debates
- tailor policy stances to align with voter opinion
- candidates with high polling ratings will be invited to debates, therefore（free）media coverage and fundraising increase
| 单词 | 释义 |
| ---- | ---- |
| Bandwagon Effect | - as the candidate popularity increases, number of others getting on the bandwagon increases as well |
Polling and Public Policy
- politicians use polling to figure how public feels about proposed or existing public policies, and what problems and solutions are favored by the public
- politicians up for reelection are more impacted by public opinion
Polling Reliability and Veracity（Validity）
单词 释义 Reliability - consistency or repeatability of a survey Veracity（Validity） - data accuracy Predictive Validity - how accurate a poll is at forecasting future behaviors Polling Accuracy - does poll accurate measure the full topic area being studied
美国民主的基础
民主理想
美国政治建立在 limited government 的思想之上，包含了 natural rights 、popular sovereignty 、republicanism，以及 social contract。
该思想认为政府应当有种种限制才能够保护个体的权利和公民的自由。
美国在宣言独立时便在思考除了君主制外的政府机制，以及什么样的政府才能够在不侵犯公民的个体自由的情况下保护他们。最终得到的结果便是 limited government，以及其的四个子思想。
美国政府建立起前，构造政府的人决定看向政治哲学家 ———— Thomas Hobbes 和 John Locke。
Natural Rights
美国宣言独立的最主要问题便是英国的君主制侵犯了美国人民的 natural rights。Natural rights
- sometimes called unalienable rights
- are rights the Framers believed all people are born with and can never give up
John Locke 认为 natural rights 是 个体的人生、自由，和所有物的权利。这一思想感染了 Thomas Jefferson，使他描绘 natural rights 为 个体的人生、自由，和追求幸福的权利。
Social Contract
为了政府去保护美国公民的 natural rights，美国公民也要视政府为有权柄权威的。而 social contract 便是美国社会赞同牺牲部分自由，以换取联邦政府的保护。
Thomas Hobbes 认为 social contract 是政府的基础。
Popular Sovereignty
Popular sovereignty
- the idea that the government's power comes from the will of the people or the "consent of the governed"
当政府开始去侵犯公民的意愿，那公民有权利去改变这一切。正因为英国君主制的权利愈来愈强大，且不再聆听殖民者的意愿，才导致了殖民者后来的反叛和脱离。构思美国政府的人认为，这些殖民者拥有反叛的权利。
政府权力在政党之间转移时，也表明了人民的意愿也发生了变化。政党是美国政治的一大重要角色，因为它们代表了人民对政府的意愿和观点。
Republicanism
构思美国政府的人认为政府的最佳形态应是民选领导人来代表人民的利益。这也就是 republicanism，共和主义。
然而最初的领导人投票仅向拥有土地的白人男性开放，直到 200 年后才向全部的美国公民开放。
独立宣言和宪法都为美国的民主政府提供了其意识形态的基础：独立宣言提供了 popular sovereignty 的基础，而宪法勾勒出了美国政府系统的蓝图。
The Declaration of Independence
参与了写独立宣言的 Thomas Jefferson 因受 John Locke 的启发，认为所有人一出生都拥有着 natural rights，以及政府是人民和领导者之间的 social contract。他写下了独立宣言的草稿，并让 John Adams 和 Benjamin Franklin 来进行修改。简单而言，独立宣言就是一份对英国君主制的抱怨清单。但在更高的层面上，独立宣言表达的思想是美国民主价值观的灵感来源。
The Constitution
尽管独立宣言是美国民主的灵感来源，但它并没有写下政府具体是什么样的。革命后美国政府首先有的政府系统是 Articles of Confederation，也就是联邦条例。该系统将大多数的权利都给予在了州政府的手中。
因为种种原因，联邦条例并不强悍，反而非常的弱小。很明显这是一个失败品，美国需要一个更强大的政府系统。各州的代表举行了 Constitutional Convention 以探讨什么政府既强大到可以支撑美国的需求，又不会强大的十分强横。
在 George Washington 的领导下，代表们最终得出了最终版本的宪法，且该宪法深受 James Madison 和 Alexander Hamilton 的影响。
| 单词 | 释义 |
|---|---|
| Constitutional Convention | - also called the Philadelphia Convention - a meeting of delegates from 12 of the 13 states to revise or replace the Articles of Confederation with a new Constitution featuring a stronger central government |
| Limited Government | - a political system in which the government's power is restricted by laws or a written Constitution |
| Natural Rights | - the right to life, liberty, and property, which no government may take away |
| Republicanism | - the principles of governing through elected representatives |
| Social Contract | - an agreement between people and government in which citizens consent to be governed so long as the government protects their natural rights |
| 人名 | 贡献 |
|---|---|
| John Adams | - Massachusetts statesman and leader in the movement for American independence - aided Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence |
| Ben Franklin | - Pennsylvania statesman and leader in the movement for American independence - aided Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence |
| Alexander Hamilton | - New York statesman who promoted replacing the Articles of Confederation with a stronger central government - coauthored the Federalist Papers, which argued in favor of ratifying the Constitution |
| Thomas Jefferson | - principal author of the Declaration of Independence |
| James Madison | - Virginia statesman and major contributor to the US Constitution - coauthored the Federalist Papers and wrote the Bill of Rights |
| George Washington | - Revolutionary War general who presided over the Constitutional Convention |
政府权力与个体权利
当构思美国政府的人们打算将联邦条例替换掉时，联邦党人（Federalist）和反联邦党人（Anti-Federalist）辩论着不同结构的政府。
| 单词 | 释义 |
|---|---|
| Articles of Confederation | - the first government system of the United States, which lasted from 1776 until 1789 - the Articles placed most power in the hands of state governments - government under the Articles lacked an executive or a judicial branch |
| Confederation Congress | - the central government under the Articles of Confederation, composed of delegates chosen by state governments - each state had one vote in the Congress, regardless of its population - the Congress had difficulty legislating as the Articles required nine of the thirteen states to vote to approve any measure, and a unanimous vote in order to amend the Articles themselves |
辩论中有两份重要的文档：Federalist No. 10 和 Brutus No. 1。前者是由 James Madison 编写的，持强大的中央政府能够控制所有由派系带来的影响这一观点；后者则认为一个强大的中央政府并不能满足所有美国公民的需求。
民主类型
当美国建国时，建国者们创建的是 Democratic Republic，一种权力来源于人民，但人民的利益由民选官员代表的政府系统。
美国政府有着许多不同的级别和部门，而这些级别和部门任何美国公民都有可能接近。政治理论家们对于美国公民是否可以影响政府行为这一观点上催生出了三种流行的民主模式，即 Participatory 、 Pluralist，和 Elite。
Participatory Democracy
- a model of democracy in which citizens have the power to decide directly on policy and politicians are responsible for implementing those policy decisions
参与式民主：公民有权做出政策决定。
参与式民主强调公民广泛参与政治，只是公民并非负责制定政策决定，而是影响它们。负责执行政策决定的依然是政客。美国并没有纯粹的参与式民主，但是能在地方政府和州政府中看到参与式民主的影子。
例如市政厅会议（Town hall meetings）：政治家和选民当面讨论感兴趣的话题和即将到来的立法。
倡议（Initiatives）和公投（Referendums）也是地方政府和州政府允许公民影响政策决定的两个方法。
倡议允许公民绕过他们的州立法机构，将拟议的法律放在选票上。一些州甚至允许公民在选票上提出宪法修正案。公投则允许选民批准或废除州立法机构的一项法案。
Pluralist Democracy
- a model of democracy in which no one group dominates politics and organized groups compete with each other to influence policy
多元化民主：没有任何一个团体主导政治，有组织的团体相互竞争以影响政策。
与参与式民主不同的是，多元化民主是个体们通过围绕着共同事业而形成的团体来进行政策决策影响工作。
支持多元化民主的理论家们认为，人们会自行选择他们想花时间的事业，然后支持这些团体。同时这些团体会获得知名政治家的支持而竞争。这些政治家们则提倡他们的利益。美国政治体系中最明显的带有多元化民主元素的例子便是利益团体。他们是试图影响政策制定者的群体，以支持他们在特定的共同利益或关切问题上的立场。
例如全国步枪协会 NRA 和全国妇女组织 NOW，这些团体以许多方式影响着政策制定者，比如通过金钱捐赠、游说和在国会听证会（Congressional hearings）上影响政治家。
Elite Democracy
- a model of democracy in which a small number of people, usualyy whose who are wealthy and well-educated, influence political decision making
精英民主：由富有或受过良好教育的少数人来影响政治决策。
提倡精英民主的制宪者（Framers）认为对政治的参与应仅限于一小群高度知情的人，而他们能够为所有公民做出最佳的决定。选举团（Electoral College）的结构中有着精英民主的影子。尽管人民通过选举产生了总统候选人，但选举团对潜在的多数人暴政起到了制约作用。
| 单词 | 释义 |
|---|---|
| Democracy | - a system of government in which the power of the government is vested in the people, who rule directly or through elected representatives |
| Participatory Democracy | - a form of democracy that emphasizes broad, direct participation in politics and civil society, in which most or all citizens participate in politics directly |
| Elite Democracy | - a form of democracy in which a small number of people, usually those who are wealthy and well-educated, influence political decisionmaking |
| 文档 | 描述 |
|---|---|
| Federalist No. 10 | - an essay written by James Madison, in which he argued that a strong representative government would be able to control the effects of factions |
| Brutus No. 1 | - an Anti-Federalist essay which argued against a strong, central government based on the belief that it would not be able to meet the needs of all U.S. citizens |
| Constitution | - the fundamental laws and principles that govern the United States - the document was the result of several compromises between Federalists and Anti-Federalists surrounding the ratification of the Constitution |
国会
国会行为
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Gridlock | - when the government is unable to reach compromises or make policy decisions |
| Partisan | - a firm supporter of one political party |
| Redistricting | - the process of adjusting electoral districts in the United States |
| Gerrymandering | - the act of changing the boundaries of an electoral district to favor one party over another |
| Dividing Government | - when one party controls one or more houses in the legislative branch while the other party controls in executive branch |
| "Lame Duck" | - an elected official who continues to hold political office during the period between the election and the inauguration of their successor |
| Trustee | - a member of Congress who takes into account the views of their constituents and use their own judgment to decide how to vote |
| Delegate | - a member of Congress who always follows their constituents』voting preferences |
| Politico | - a member of Congress who acts as a delegate on issues that their constituents care about, and as a trustee on issues that their constituents don』t care about |
重要案件
Baker v. Carr（1961）
- 法院裁定 Tennessee 自 1901 年以来都没有重新选区的行为违反了宪法
- 法院确立「一人一票」原则 —— 选区应按照比例来划分 —— 且法院有权审查各州的重新选区问题
Shaw v. Reno（1993）
- 该案件确立，尽管立法重新划分选区必须考虑到种族问题并遵守 1965 年的《投票权法》（the Voting Rights Act of 1965），但不能超过避免种族失衡的合理必要范围
选区划分的重要性：
- 重新划分选区会影响到选区对部分国会议员的「安全性」
- 假设一个国会议员位于安全区，那 TA 就会基于大多数选民的政党在选举中获胜。这也会导致该国会议员有可能因为觉得自己更有权力，而采取选民不喜欢的立场
总统通讯
美国宪法 II 第三款规定总统为首席立法者（Chief Legislator），也就是说，总统有权指定政策并影响国会试图通过的法案。
通信技术的进步改变了总统与其他政府部门和选民的关系，增加了总统对立法议程的影响力。
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| State of the Union | - an annual presidential report required by the Constitution, conventionally delivered as a speech to Congress since 1913 and televised since 1947 - the president can use the State of the Union to set their policy agenda and recommend policies to members of Congress |
| Bully Pulpit | - Theodore Roosevelt』s notion of the presidency as a platform from which the president could promote an agenda directly to the public |
扩大总统权力
总统应该有多少权力？
- 强大的行政人员可以采取快速果断的行动，这对于应对时事很重要
- 但如果总统权力太大，国会和人民可能缺乏追究 TA 责任的能力
| Term | Definition | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Formal Powers | - powers expressly granted to the president under Article II of the Constitution | 1. making treaties 2. commanding the military 3. appointing Supreme Court justices 4. vetoing legislation |
| Informal Powers | - powers claimed by presidents as necessary in order to execute the law | 1. issuing executive orders and negotiating executive agreements |
| Single Executive | - an executive branch led by a single person | |
| Twenty-Second Amendment（1951） | - applies term limits to the office of the president - no one may be elected president more than twice, or serve as president longer than ten years |
|
| War Powers Act（1973） | - also called the War Powers Resolution - limits the president』s power to deploy US armed forces - every president since Nixon has contested the War Powers Act as an infringement of their role as Commander in Chief of the armed forces |
Federalist No. 70（1788）
- 由 Hamilton 撰写。他认为，单个行政人员（single executive）是美国行政部门的最佳形式
- Hamilton 认为，与一大群领导人相比，一位总统可以更快地采取行动，并在必要时更加保密
- 同时，与委员会（council）相比，单个行政人员比民主主义的危害更小，因为识别和罢免一个腐败的领导人要比在多个领导人中发现谁是不良行为者更容易
对总统职位的制约
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Presidential Nomination | - a president』s formal proposal of a candidate to fill a position, such as a cabinet member or Supreme Court justice |
| Confirmation | - senate approval of a presidential nomination |
| Executive Order | - a rule or order issued by the president without the cooperation of Congress that carries the force of law |
总统的权力
制宪者希望行政部门有足够的权力采取行动，因此在宪法 II 中规定美国的行政权属于总统。
宪法 II 中概述的权力被称为正式权力（formal powers），而其他未被概述的权力则称为非正式权力（informal powers）。
| Term | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Cabinet | - a group of presidential advisers | 1. the heads of the executive departments 2. the attorney general 3. other officials chosen by the president |
| Executive Agreement | - an international agreement between the president and another country, which does not require the consent of the Senate | |
| Executive Order | - a presidential order to the executive branch that carries the force of law - the Supreme Court can rule executive orders unconstitutional |
|
| Pocket Veto | - an indirect veto, which the president can use by neither signing or vetoing a bill passed by Congress fewer than 10 days before it adjourns | |
| Signing Statement | - a presidential statement upon signing a bill into law, which explains how a president』s administration intends to interpret the law | |
| State of the Union Address | - the president』s annual message to a joint session of Congress, which includes recommended legislation and evaluations of the nation』s top priorities and economic health | |
| Veto | - the president』s constitutional right to reject a law passed by Congress - Congress may override the president』s veto with a two-thirds vote |
总统的正式权力
Category Powers Executive - take care that the laws be faithfully executed
- nominate officials（with Senate confirmation）
- request written opinions from administrative officials
- fill administrative vacancies during congressional recessesForeign Policy - act as Commander in Chief of the armed forces
- make treaties（with Senate ratification）
- nominate ambassadors（with Senate confirmation）
- receive ambassadors
- confer diplomatic recognition on other governmentsJudicial - grant reprieves and pardons for federal offenses（except impeachment）
- nominate federal judges（with Senate confirmation）Legislative - recommend legislation to Congress
- present information on the State of the Union to Congress
- convene Congress on extraordinary occasions
- adjourn Congress if House and Senate cannot agree
- veto legislation（Congress may overrule with supermajority）
总统的非正式权力
Power Definition Bargaining and Persuasion - setting priorities for Congress and attempting to get majorities to put through the president』s legislative agenda Issuing Executive Orders - regulations to run the government and direct the bureaucracy Issuing Signing Statements - giving the president's intended interpretation of bills passed by Congress Negotiating Executive Agreements - agreements with heads of foreign governments that are not ratified by the Senate